Middle / Early Modern English Glossary

A word list, really.

As I post material in Middle English or Early Modern English I will add to this glossary.  I only include the words which in my view are likely to make readers pause and / or were to be found in the glossary of the edition I read, if it had one.  The plan is to add to it each time I post something which contains words requiring a gloss.

This ought to become substantial over time.  I do not intend this as an exercise in proper lexicography, but rather as a very rough-and-ready aid to reading.

“When in doubt, read it out” must be the maxim with strange words Middle English. Most of them are not in fact strange or indeed unknown to us. Declamation makes the words which seem at first strange simply become misspelled (from our perspective).

Think of it this way - in Middle English, words were spelled how they were pronounced, according to the scribe copying the texts of course, whereas we now maintain more consistent spelling. If, for example, today’s English were written as Middle English, the third person plural object pronoun “them” would be spelled “thim” in New Zealand; “black” would be spelled “bleck” in South Africa; and “locker” would be spelled “lockah” in New York City.

The letter ‘Ȝ’: ‘y’ at the beginning of words, ‘g / gh’ in the middle (niȝt, for example = night); except when, at the beginning of the word, it’s clearly another ‘g’: “ȝaf them in to slaȝter” - [he/she gave them into slaughter].

The letter “Þ,” is “th.” In some older texts two characters are used to represent “th,” one for the voiced “th” and another for the unvoiced. This orthographic change appears to have happened early in the Middle English period.

Do not, however, despair of the vocabulary. It is, in my experience, a short time until Middle English becomes as easy to read as our own English simply through a relatively short time of perseverence. It helps that Middle English texts are fun.

-A-

aferd: afraid

a-forne: before, ahead of time

aga: gone

algate: in every case, always

aldai: all day

allegate: in any case

almus: alms

apayd: satisfied, appeased

are (in the are): air

aryn: are

array: clothes

astatis: estates

atent: intent

atte : at the

avowtré: adultery

awin: own

ay: always, ever

ayen: again

-B-

bacbyte: slander

ballis: balls (i.e. tennis balls)

barn, barne: child, bairne

bawme: balm

beest, beeste: beast, animal

bem: beam (of light)

benyng: gracious

bere: bear

bere: bier

beré: bury

bereyng: burial

besé: active, busy

bet: better

beth: are (i.e. be-eth)

beothe, beon: are

besynesse: business

betyme:  beforetime, in time before

beye: buy, purchase

bi-þenchand: be-thinking

blastys: blasts, winds

ble, blee: face, countenance

blere: blur, cloud

blinne, blinnen, blynne: to cease, stop

blyndfelden: blind folded

blynne: blind

bobbid: beaten / mocked. 

boffeteden: beat (simple past ending - ede(n) rather than -ed ending).

bone: petition, entreaty, request

breder: brothers

brenyng:  burning, firing

brondis:  brands

brycht: bright

buggere: buyer, purchaser

bunde: certain, stable, secure (< binden: to bind)

burd: maiden

buþe: be (i.e. be-eth - second person pl. imperative of verb “to be”)

buxumnes:  obedience

-C-

cam: came

cape: cap

cete: city

cewre : cure

chaplyte: garland

charll: churl

ched, chedyn: shed

chent: ruined

chepardis: shepherds

chere: affection, cheer; manner, degree

chese: choose

chielde: child

childe = schilde: shield

chomes: shames (3rd person singular, present indicative)

clannes: clean

cleertees: clarity

clennes: purity

clepid: called

clyppe: clasp, embrace

carpe: talk, speak (< carpen: to talk, to speak, to say; to rebuke; carpede (pt) carped.  Icelandic: karpa, to boast)

cokewolde: cuckold

cokyll: darnel, tare (pernicious and poisonous weed which looks just like wheat until it’s too late to weed it out)

con: can

conueyed, conueied: directed, conveyed

conyng: wisdom

cors: corpse

cowth: caused

covetyse, covetys: covetousness, avarice

coynt: quaint

craukes: crackling (as in the fat of a roast joint when the moisture has been baked out)

crisum-childer: newly baptized

crid, cridyn: cried, wept

-D-

daie: day

dalf: delved, dug

dalyens: conversation (small talk?)

dele: bit

dere: valued, cherished

derei: violence

dedis: deeds

dere: dearly

dernels: tares; weeds

deserent: desirous

detrasion: slander

deuh: dew

deyyen: die

dissayte: deceit

dome: judgement

dompnationis: dominations (one of the nine ranks of heavenly host: archangels, angels, dominations, thrones, powers, seraphim, cherubim, virtues and principalities).

domusmen: judges

dredul: fearful, respectful

dresse: make ready, direct, reach, prepare, dress

dyse: dice

-E-

eeke: each

efere: together

efte: after, again

echoon: each one

enchesone: occasion

enmes, enmys: enemies

Emne: as found in Christmas Carol cycle - scholarly opinion as to its meaning ranges from unsubstantiated guess to less substantiated guess. See Introduction John Audelay in Books for a discussion which failed to enlighten me. It might be, on a weird interpretation, enemy. Mary gave birth to Jesus, and in a way therefore the Trinity, the Triune God created all including “the Enemy.” A bit extreme, but there you have it.

entres, entresse: entry

enuye: envy

eor: their

erd: earth

eretyk: heretic

Eris: Year’s

est: behest

euesynges: eaves (i.e. top of house)

everechon: every one

-F-

fard: fare

faunt: infant

fayne: joyful, willing, inclined, eager

fe: fief

fedyng: feeding, eating

feele: excellent, proper, worthy, good

fele: < felen: to fall

felle: skin

fend: fiend, Devil

ferd: feared

fere, in fere: together

fetred: fettered

flesschly: carnally

ffryst: first

folnes: foulness

fong: past tense < fon: to seize, grasp, take hold of; to receive; welcome, accept (as one would a King or dignitary)

forbled: bled excessively. Past participle < forbleden, to bleed profusely, to cover with blood; to weaken or exhaust by loss of blood; to bleed to death; to shed blood.

forȝeue: forgive

forwake: forsake, abandon

foyle: folly, foolishness

fraiedist: past tense < fraien: to attack, make an assault upon

fray: terror; attack

froyte: fruit

fuson: abundance

Fynd: fiend, the Devil

Fyndis: of the fiend, fiend’s, of the Devil, the Devil’s (-is = genitive singular ending)

fysyke: physic (medicine)

-G-

gan: gave

gat: gate

gedren: gather

gen (to): began, began to (gen he seye – began to say; gen to syng: began to sing)

gete: begot

ȝeue, ȝeuen: give

ȝauen: gave

gif: give

gilery: deceit, guile

Godis: (genitive singular: God) of God

godnys: goodness; good fortune

grandseres: grandsires

grawdam: grandmother

gresteyste: greatest

grill: cruel, harsh

grownder: grounding, basis

gyf: if

gyffe: give

gynnyng: beginning

-H-

habounde: abundant

haddys: must (from verb “to have,” as in “I have it as my lot” / “I have it to . . .” = “I must.”)

hai: hay

haleday: Sabbath

halle: all

halse: hug, embrace (this is the same word asa below in a different connotation)

halson, halsyng: beeech, adjure conjure < halsen / halsien

ham: them

happys: fortune, fate

hard: heard

Harflete: Harfleur

hasardours: hazarders, i.e. gamblers

hast geton: have gotten

hastilich: quickly, hastily

hatis: hates (3rd person singular, present indicative)

haylsyng: greeting

he degré: high degree

helter: halter

hent: until

heo: she

herber: harbor, shelter

here: their (when it does not mean “here”)

here: hear (when it does not mean “their” or “here”)

heryd, heredon: praised

heryed: harried, harrowed

heryng: hearing

hestes: commands, demands, directions

hicht: height

hilé: entirely, wholly

hod: head

holden: held, considered

hom: them

hon: one

hon in fere: one together, one united

hordent: ordained

hoth: oath

hynde = hende: noble, courtly, well-bred, refined; gentle, mild, kindly, generous; (re God & Virgin) gracious, merciful, loving

-I-

ibore: born – past participle with i- augment

icallid: named - past participle with i- augment

ichos: past participle chosen (i- is an augment, soon to disappear from the language)

ilkone: alike

in the kyng danger: in the danger of the King, i.e. within his jurisdiction

Isay: Isaiah

iuel: evil

iwys, iwous: for sure

-J-

judicare : sentencing, condemnation

-K-

kaght: shatched, caught up

kele: < kelen: to cool

kepe: require

kittiþ = cutteþ: cuts

knavechilder: male children

kunde: nature

kynes: knees

knyt, knytte, knet, etc.: to knit tie, bind up; to marry; in relation to a halter: to hang up or put aside

kynd: nature, station

-L-

lake: fails, lacks

laus: laws

leche, lechys: (lit. leech) doctor

lede: lead, deal with, put up with

lemmon: lover

lere: learn

lered: learned, educated, literate

lesne: loose, release

lette: cease, desist

leud: ignorant, uneducated, illiterate

leve: believe (sometimes)

leve: leave (at other times)

leve: loved (at yet other times)

liftand: lifting

lith: lies

loke: look

lorn, lorne: lost, forsaken

lowse: loose (as in untie a knot)

lufe: love

lusté: greatly

lycht: light

lye: lie, not tell the truth

lytil: little, small

lyyst: lie, tell an untruth

-M-

mak: mate

malas: malace

manere: manner

mannus: man‘s

mared: married

marteiris seir: martyrs many

mary: merry

may: maid (as in merceful may - merciful maid)

med, mede: reward; often meaning bribe

medeled: mixed

mekelé: meekly, mercifully

mele: meal

mene: mean

metys: meats

modur: mother

mon: moan

moné an e: many an eye

monhod: manhood

monkunne: mankind

mony-makers: counterfeiters

mot, mown, mowyth, mow: may

mothys: months

munde: mind

mycht: might

myschif: misery

myschip: mishap

mystere: necessity

nam: took (vid. German verb nehmen, nahm, genommen)

nappe: draught

ne: nor; not

not: know not (I not: I know not)

nowfangelnesse: newfangledness, novelty, the latest (fashion etc.)

nyȝtrauin: night raven

-O-

o: one

obisions: perversions

odur: either; second

oȝains: against

on: one (sometimes, other times it means “on”)

oné: any

on he: on high

onlé: only

oone: alone, own (i.e. on his own)

oonis = ones: one time only, once; once more, yet again

ore, or : before

owre: hour (at other times “our”)

oultrage = outrage: to become intemperate

-P-

pape: breast

paramour, paramowr: darling

parfiteliche: completely; entirely; perfectly

patayle: battle

pere: peer

perfite: perfect

peté: pity, compassion

peynis: pains

pistil: epistle

pleyers: players

pleyne: lament, bemoan, complain

postil, postilis: apostle, apostles

potestatis: powers (type of angel)

potykary: apothecary

Poule: Paul

poure: power

prest: prepared for battle, armed; ready; quick

prow: benefit, sake

prys: price

purs: purse

pyght: fixed

Pyté: pieta

-Q-

quhome: whom

-R-

racide: raked, scratched, gouged (<raken - to rake)

rather: before (after and rather – after and before)

reams: realms

rede: < reden – to advise, counsel

reddour: severity, sternness, rigor, strictness; firmness of mind; a rule of a religious order; severe treatment

rere-sopers: late suppers

rer op: rear up

resun: reason

reuthe: pity

rewle, reulis: rule, rules

richelees = recheles: heedless, imprudent; careless of the consequences of one's actions; foolhardy, rash; uncaring towards somebody or oneself, indifferent; characterized by recklessness or heedlessness; negligent of one's work or duty; dilatory; carefree, untroubled by care.

rewild: ruled

right: straight

roche: rock

roumers: rumor-ers (fals roumers – gossips)

rulye: pitifully

ryal: royal

ryd: ride

ryve: tear, rip

-S-

sabil: lit. sabel the fur; metaphoric meaning: dark

sapyence: wisdom, good judgement

saulis: souls

sawe: tale, story

schent = shent: overcome, doomed

schilde: shield

schryve, schryue: confess

schul: should

scle: slay

scorgys: scourges, whips

seche: such

seid: said (3rd person singular)

seiden: said (3^rd person plural: they said)

sekyrly: certainly, surely ( lit. securely)

selcouth: wonder

sele: seal (as in wax seal on letter, deed or charter)

semlé: seemly, fitting

seris: sirs

setis: cities

sette: place, put, position (best sette: place best, i.e. make best)

setys: sets, places

sewe: < sewen: pursue, follow

sewond: follow

seygh: saw

seyng: seeing, sight

sine fyne: without end

siȝ: sees (the final letter pronounced as “sees” or “seez”)

siþen: since, because, when

sleth: slays (3rd pers sing)

sofir, sofird: suffer, suffered

sok: sucked

sone: sun / son

sone: soon

song aslep: sang asleep

songyn: sang

sonyng: swooning

sool: sole, alone

soote: truly

sope: sup

sorfet: surfeit

sote, swete: sweet

sothanly: suddenly

soþenes: truthfulness

sownyng: swooning

span: stretched, covered (?)

speir: sphere

spitteden: spat (weak-verb-form simple past tense < spitten)

sterfe: died < sterfen: to starve; to die  cf. German sterben

stoon: stone

stynt: cease, stop

suete: sweat

sum dele: a lot, a great deal (some deal)

sunne: sin

surfytys: overindulgence, surfeits

swelte: < swelten, to cease living, to perish, to slip into death

swere: swear

swetyng: darling, sweetness

swynk: work for

swotte: sweat

synnaris: sinners

sytyht: sits

-T-

tabernacle: niche

tarage: ?? edge ??

tawt: taught

tekyl: ticklish

tene: trouble

tenés: tennis

thag: though

the: very often “thee” rather than “the.”

thechest: teach (2nd person singular indicative)

þenchand: thinking

thene: thence

theydyr: tither, there

thowth: thought

tofore: before

þoo: those

thyrst: thrust

toone: the one

tothir: the other

to-torne: two-torn, torn apart

touris: towers

towchyng: touching, sense of touch

traytré: treason

trebeut: tribute

tretour: traitor

tronis : thrones (type of angel)

tult: tilt

twel: dwell

twhertyd , thwarted: argued, answered   < hwerfen: to turn, to change

tythyngis, tydyngus: tidings

-U-

uche: each

underfonged: received (< underfangen: to receive)

us untille: unto us

-V-

veniaunce: vengance, revenge

veray: true

vesid: visit

vnlust: slaggard, slothful one

vonge: caught, received

vyalens: violence

-W-

wan: lived (<wonen: to live, dwell)

wane: reduce, lessen

waymentynge: wailing, mourning, lamenting

wede: thought, mind, opinion

wele: wheel (sometimes)

wele: happiness (at other times)

wele: well

wem: blemish

wemlees: without blemish, pure, blameless

wens:  whence

wenest: think

were: wear

west: knew (3rd person sing. simple past)

wettyng: understanding

wexe: grow, increase

wheche: which

wielde: wild; sinful.

wille: desires

wod: mad, insane

woe: we (So woe bisecheth thee – so we beseech thee)

wol, wold: wish (verb I wold - I wish)

wole (subst.)= wile: will

wonand: living, dwelling

wonen: live, dwell

worche, werche: work, do, carry out

worthilich: fittingly; worthily

woryshyp, worchip: honor

wot: know

wowynge: wooing

wringe: twist, squeeze; torment physically or emotionally, cause pain; suffer

wrytn: written

wyȝt, wight: living creature, animate being, person

wynd: wend; wynd youe fro: depart from you

wyrchen:  work

wyst: knew

wyteh: know

wyvis: wives

-Y-

Y: I (first person pronoun)

yche: same

ydil: idle

ydon: done – “y” is an augment indicating the past participle, which survived into the Middle English period but eventually died out entirely.

ye: eye (mannus ye: man’s eye)

ȝode < ȝeden / yeden: go, go to, go towards - cf. Germen gehen

yerde: rod; branch; bower

yeven: given

yknow: known - past participle < to know (see Guide to Middle English Grammar)

ynfere: together

yre, yra: ire, anger

ys, yn etc.: is, in, etc.

yuel: evil

yyng: young